Learning Science Glossary

A 102-term reference glossary for the most important concepts in learning science. Terms are organized alphabetically. For thematic navigation, use the cluster index below.

Thematic Cluster Index

Cluster	Key Terms
Learning theory and instruction	Behaviorism, Bloom's taxonomy, Constructivism, Deep learning, Discovery learning, Instructional design, Learning objectives, Mastery learning, Multimedia learning, Situated learning, Transfer, Zone of proximal development
Cognition and memory	Advance organizer, Attention, Automatization, Chunking, Cognitive load, Dual coding, Elaboration, Extraneous load, Germane load, Intrinsic load, Prior knowledge, Recall, Recognition, Retrieval practice, Schema, Spacing effect, Spaced repetition, Transfer-appropriate processing, Worked example
Motivation and emotion	Agency, Belonging, Growth mindset, Motivation, Persistence, Self-efficacy, Student engagement
Self-regulation and metacognition	Goal setting, Independent practice, Metacognition, Reflection, Self-directed learning, Self-monitoring, Self-regulated learning, Time on task
Assessment and feedback	Assessment literacy, Competency, Constructive alignment, Effect size, Feedback, Formative assessment, Guided practice, Instructional feedback, Meta-analysis, Practice testing, Reliability, Rubric, Validity
Online learning and MOOCs	Asynchronous learning, Discussion forum, Hybrid learning, Microlearning, MOOC, Novelty effect, Online learning, Scalability, Social presence, Synchronous learning
Equity, accessibility, and inclusion	Accessibility, Equitable access, Equity gap, Universal Design for Learning
AI, agents, and learning with tools	Active learning, Adaptive learning, Agentic AI, Agency fatigue, Case-based learning, Cognitive apprenticeship, Cognitive offloading, Cognitive science, Collaborative learning, Deliberate practice, Educational psychology, Human-AI collaboration, Inquiry-based learning, Interleaving, Knowledge tracing, Learning analytics, Learning theory, Learning transfer, Peer instruction, Personalized learning, Problem-based learning, Scaffolding, Simulation

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A

Accessibility — Design that can be used by people with diverse needs, including sensory, motor, and cognitive differences.

Active learning — Learning that requires learners to do something cognitively with material, rather than passively receive it.

Adaptive learning — Instruction that adjusts pace, content, or practice based on learner performance data.

Advance organizer — A brief conceptual bridge presented before new material to activate prior knowledge and support understanding.

Agency — A learner's capacity to make choices and act purposefully in their own learning.

Agency fatigue — Reduced willingness to act when systems over-automate choices, undermining learner initiative.

Agentic AI — AI systems that can initiate or sequence actions toward a goal without step-by-step human instruction.

Asynchronous learning — Learning that does not require real-time attendance; learners engage with material on their own schedule.

Assessment literacy — Knowledge of how assessments work, what they measure, and how to interpret and use results.

Attention — The selective focus needed to process information effectively; a limited resource that instructional design must manage.

Automatization — The development of a skill to the point where it requires little conscious effort, freeing working memory for higher-order tasks.

B

Behaviorism — A learning theory emphasizing observable behavior and the role of reinforcement and punishment in shaping it. Foundational in early instructional design and programmed learning.

Belonging — A learner's sense of being accepted and included in a learning environment. Linked to motivation, persistence, and well-being.

Bloom's taxonomy — A hierarchical framework for classifying educational goals by cognitive complexity: remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, create.

C

Case-based learning — Learning through analysis of realistic cases, developing judgment by working through authentic problems.

Chunking — Grouping related pieces of information into a single meaningful unit to reduce cognitive load.

Cognitive apprenticeship — A teaching approach that makes expert thinking visible through modeling, coaching, and scaffolding in authentic contexts.

Cognitive load — The total mental effort required in working memory during learning. Excessive cognitive load impairs learning; managing it is a primary goal of instructional design.

Cognitive offloading — Using external tools — notes, calculators, AI assistants — to reduce the mental effort required, freeing resources for higher-order thinking.

Cognitive science — The interdisciplinary study of mind, brain, and information processing, drawing from psychology, linguistics, neuroscience, and computer science.

Collaborative learning — Learning through interaction, shared problem solving, and peer support.

Competency — A demonstrated ability to perform effectively in a defined domain or context.

Constructivism — The view that learners actively build understanding by connecting new information to existing knowledge and experience.

Constructive alignment — Aligning learning objectives, teaching methods, and assessments so each element reinforces the others.

Content knowledge — Knowledge of the subject matter itself, as distinct from knowledge of how to teach it.

D

Deep learning — Durable, meaningful understanding that supports transfer to new contexts, as opposed to surface-level memorization.

Deliberate practice — Focused, effortful practice aimed at improving specific weaknesses, with immediate feedback. Ericsson's framework for developing expertise.

Discovery learning — Learning through exploration and problem solving, with learners constructing understanding rather than receiving it directly.

Discussion forum — A persistent asynchronous text space for learner interaction, a primary social channel in online learning.

Dual coding — The principle that information is learned and retained better when both verbal and visual channels are engaged simultaneously.

E

Educational psychology — The study of how people learn in educational settings, including motivation, cognition, development, and assessment.

Effect size — A standardized measure of the strength of a treatment or intervention, used in meta-analyses to compare educational interventions.

Elaboration — Adding connections, associations, or explanations to new information to deepen encoding and aid retrieval.

Epistemic cognition — Beliefs about the nature of knowledge, what counts as evidence, and how knowing works.

Equitable access — Fair opportunity for all learners to participate, engage, and succeed regardless of background, ability, or resources.

Equity gap — Differences in learning outcomes or access tied to structural barriers such as race, income, disability, or language.

Extraneous load — Cognitive burden caused by poor instructional design — unnecessary complexity, confusing presentation, or irrelevant information.

F

Feedback — Information about performance provided to guide improvement. Timely, specific, and actionable feedback is one of the most reliably effective learning interventions.

Formative assessment — Assessment conducted during learning to monitor progress, identify gaps, and guide instruction — as opposed to summative assessment, which evaluates final performance.

G

Germane load — The cognitive effort devoted to building useful schemas and deep understanding. Good instructional design optimizes germane load by reducing extraneous load.

Goal setting — Choosing specific targets to direct learning effort and measure progress. Self-regulated learners set goals as part of a forethought phase before undertaking learning tasks.

Growth mindset — The belief that ability and intelligence can improve with effort, effective strategies, and support. Associated with Dweck's research on motivation and resilience.

Guided practice — Practice with instructor or system support and feedback, before independent performance.

H

Human-AI collaboration — People and AI systems working together on learning or work tasks, with complementary roles.

Hybrid learning — Blending online and in-person learning experiences, with some activities occurring in each mode.

Hypothesis testing — Using testable predictions to examine claims or evaluate ideas; a foundational practice in scientific reasoning.

I

Independent practice — Practice performed with little or no support, used to consolidate skills and build automaticity.

Inquiry-based learning — Learning organized around questions and investigation, where learners drive the discovery process.

Instructional design — The systematic planning and development of learning experiences, drawing on learning science principles.

Instructional feedback — Feedback focused specifically on improving the learning process, not only evaluating performance.

Interleaving — Mixing different types of problems or topics during practice, rather than blocked practice of one type at a time. Increases difficulty but improves long-term retention and transfer.

Intrinsic load — The inherent cognitive complexity of the material or task being learned.

K

Knowledge tracing — Modeling what a learner knows and doesn't know over time, used in adaptive learning systems to predict and respond to learner state.

L

Learning analytics — The measurement, collection, analysis, and reporting of learner data to understand and improve learning and the contexts in which it occurs.

Learning objectives — Clear statements of what learners should know or be able to do as a result of instruction. Effective objectives are specific, measurable, and aligned with assessment.

Learning theory — A framework or model for explaining how learning occurs, what facilitates it, and what hinders it.

Learning transfer — The application of knowledge or skills learned in one context to a new context. Transfer is the primary long-term goal of education.

M

Mastery learning — An instructional approach in which learners must demonstrate a high level of proficiency on each unit before moving forward. Bloom's mastery learning research showed it substantially reduces outcome variance.

Meta-analysis — A statistical method for synthesizing findings across many studies, producing a quantitative estimate of an effect size.

Metacognition — Thinking about one's own thinking and learning — monitoring understanding, recognizing when something is not clear, and adjusting strategies accordingly.

Microlearning — Small, focused learning units designed to address a single concept or skill, suited to short attention spans or just-in-time delivery.

MOOC — Massive Open Online Course. An online learning format designed for large-scale enrollment with open access. MOOCs made engagement, persistence, social presence, and assessment at scale into central design problems.

Motivation — The forces that initiate, sustain, and direct behavior toward goals. Motivation research distinguishes intrinsic motivation (interest-driven) from extrinsic motivation (reward- or grade-driven).

Multimedia learning — Learning from words and pictures together. Mayer's cognitive theory of multimedia learning provides principles for combining text and visuals effectively.

N

Novelty effect — Short-term performance gains caused by a new tool or instructional format, which diminish as novelty wears off. A confound in educational technology research.

O

Online learning — Learning delivered primarily or entirely through digital platforms and networks, encompassing synchronous and asynchronous formats.

P

Peer instruction — A structured teaching method in which students explain concepts to one another, using discussion and argumentation to deepen understanding.

Persistence — Continuing effort toward a learning goal despite difficulty, distraction, or frustration.

Personalized learning — Instruction adapted to individual learner needs, goals, pace, or preferences — increasingly enabled by data and AI systems.

Practice testing — Using testing as a learning strategy, not only as an assessment tool. Repeated retrieval is one of the most reliable methods for improving long-term retention.

Prior knowledge — What a learner already knows before new learning begins. The most important single factor in learning, according to Ausubel.

Problem-based learning — An instructional approach organized around solving authentic, complex problems, developed at McMaster University and widely used in professional education.

R

Recall — Retrieving information from memory without external cues or prompts.

Recognition — Identifying information as familiar when presented with it.

Reflection — Intentional examination of one's own experience, reasoning, and outcomes to improve future learning and performance.

Reliability — The consistency of a measurement or assessment — the degree to which it produces stable results across contexts, raters, or administrations.

Retention — Remembering knowledge or skills over time, as opposed to short-term performance.

Retrieval practice — Actively recalling information from memory, rather than re-reading or re-watching material. One of the most evidence-supported learning strategies.

Rubric — A scoring guide describing the criteria and levels of quality used to evaluate a performance or product.

S

Scalability — The ability of a learning design, system, or organization to serve large numbers of learners without proportional increases in cost or quality degradation.

Scaffolding — Temporary support that helps learners accomplish tasks they cannot yet perform independently, gradually removed as competence develops.

Schema — An organized mental structure for representing knowledge. Schema theory holds that new information is learned by connecting it to existing schemas.

Self-directed learning — Learning in which the learner takes primary responsibility for diagnosing needs, setting goals, choosing resources, and evaluating outcomes.

Self-efficacy — A belief in one's own ability to succeed at a specific task. Self-efficacy strongly predicts effort, persistence, and achievement.

Self-monitoring — Checking one's understanding or progress during learning, a key component of metacognition.

Self-regulated learning — The cycle of planning, monitoring, and adjusting one's own learning. Includes forethought (goal setting, planning), performance (monitoring, strategy use), and reflection (evaluation, attribution).

Simulation — An imitation of a real system or process created to support learning by allowing practice in a low-stakes environment.

Situated learning — The theory that learning is fundamentally shaped by context, activity, and participation in communities of practice.

Social presence — The feeling that other people are real, reachable, and engaged in a shared learning space. Social presence predicts persistence and satisfaction in online and hybrid learning.

Spaced repetition — Reviewing material at increasing intervals over time, exploiting the spacing effect to maximize long-term retention.

Spacing effect — The well-replicated finding that distributed practice over time produces better long-term retention than the same amount of massed (blocked) practice.

Student engagement — The degree of behavioral, emotional, and cognitive involvement a student has with learning content, tasks, and the learning community.

Synchronous learning — Learning that happens in real time, with instructors and learners present simultaneously, whether in person or via video.

T

Time on task — The amount of active, engaged time a learner spends on learning activity. A predictor of learning outcomes but insufficient on its own without quality of engagement.

Transfer — Applying knowledge or skills learned in one context to a different context. The ultimate goal of instruction. Near transfer (similar contexts) is easier; far transfer (different contexts) is harder and requires deep understanding.

Transfer-appropriate processing — The principle that memory and transfer improve when the conditions of practice match the conditions of later use.

U

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) — A framework for designing instruction that supports diverse learners from the outset, through multiple means of representation, action and expression, and engagement — rather than retrofitting accommodations.

V

Validity — How well an assessment measures what it claims to measure. Validity is threatened when AI tools allow task completion without the underlying competence the task was designed to assess.

W

Worked example — A fully solved problem provided to learners to reduce cognitive load and demonstrate expert problem-solving steps.

Z

Zone of proximal development (ZPD) — Vygotsky's concept describing the gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with guidance. Instruction is most effective when targeted at the ZPD — the space where scaffolding and tutoring provide the most value.